1. Zero Conditional: If + Subject + Present form of the Verb + Object, Subject + Present form of the Verb + Object
2. First Conditional: If + Subject + Present form of the Verb + Object, Subject + can/may/will + Present form of the Verb + Object
3. Second Conditional: If + Subject + Past form of the Verb + Object, Subject + could/would/might + Present form of the Verb + Object
4. Third Conditional: If + Subject + had + Past participle form of the Verb + Object, Subject + could/would/might + have + Past participle form of the Verb + Object
Construct the sentences as directed:
1. If I _________ (have) much money, I _______ (buy) a mansion in Switzerland. [Second Conditional] 2. If he ________ (want) to play the violin, I _______ (play) the piano for him. [First Conditional] 3. If I _______ (know) you were coming, I _______ (go) to the station. [Third Conditional] 4. Water _________ (boil) if you ________ (heat) it to 100o Centigrade. [Zero Conditional] 5. If the driver _______ (be) more careful, the accident _________ (not be) occurred. [Third Conditional] 6. He ______ (come) to see us if he _______ (be) able to. [Second Conditional] 7. If he ________ (work) hard, he _________ (succeed). [First Conditional] 8. If I _________ (know) in advance, I ______ (bring) enough money. [Third Conditional] 9. You _________ (get) a shock if you ________ (mix) water and electricity. [Zero Conditional] 10. If I ________ (have) the wings of a bird, I ________ (fly) in the sky. [Second Conditional] 11. She _______ (be) happier if she _______ (have) more friends. [Third Conditional] 12. If you _______ (smoke), you _______ (get) yellow fingers. [Zero Conditional] 13. He ________ (not get) a better job if he _______ (not pass) that exam. [First Conditional] 14. I ________ (marry) someone famous if I ________ (be) a movie star. [Second Conditional] 15. If you _______ (see) the accident, you _________ (not drive) so fast now. [Third Conditional
Answer:
1. If I had much money, I would buy a mansion in Switzerland. 2. If he wants to play the violin, I will play the piano for him. 3. If I had known you were coming, I would have gone to the station. 4. Water boils if you heat it to 100o Centigrade. 5. If the driver had been more careful, the accident would not have been occurred. 6. He would come to see us if he was able to. 7. If he works hard, he will succeed. 8. If I had known in advance, I would have brought enough money. 9. You get a shock if you mix water and electricity. 10. If I had the wings of a bird, I would fly in the sky. 11. She would have been happier if she had had more friends. 12. If you smoke, you get yellow fingers. 13. He will not get a better job if he does not pass that exam. 14. I would marry someone famous if I were to be a movie star. 15. If you had seen the accident, you would not have driven so fast now.
Complete the sentence with a verb in the correct form:
1. (First conditional) If we ______________ (not / work) harder, we ________________ (not pass) the exam. 2. (Third conditional) If the students ______________ (not be) late for the exam, they _____________ (pass). 3. (Third conditional) If the weather _____________ (not be) so cold, we ________________ (go) to the beach. 4. (Second conditional) If she _______________ (have) her laptop with her, she _______________ (email) me. 5. (First conditional) If she _______________ (not go) to the meeting, I ________________ (not go) either. 6. (Third conditional) If the baby ______________ (sleep) better last night, I ______________ (not be) so tired. 7. (First conditional) If the teacher _____________ (give) us lots of homework this weekend, I ______ (not be) happy. 8. (Second conditional) If Lucy ______________ (have) enough time, she_____________ (travel) more. 9. (First conditional) If the children _____________ (not eat) soon, they____________ (be) grumpy. 10. (First conditional) If I ________________ (not go) to bed soon, I__________ (be) tired in the morning. 11. (Second conditional) If I ______________ (want) a new car, ____________ (buy) one. 12. (Second conditional) If José _____________ (not speak) good French, he_____________ (not move) to Paris. 13. (First conditional) If John _______________ (drink) too much coffee, he_____________ (get) ill. 14. (Third conditional) If we ________________ (tidy) our flat, we_____________ (not lose) our keys. 15. (Third conditional) If Luke _____________ (not send) flowers to his mother, she____________ (not be) happy.
16. (Second conditional) If the children _____________ (be) in bed, I____________ (be able to) have a bath. 17. (Second conditional) If you _________ (not be) so stubborn, we___________ (not have) so many arguments! 18. (Third conditional) If Julie _________________ (not go) to Sweden, she_______________ (go) to Germany. 19. (First conditional) If she ________________ (go) to the library, she__________________ (study) more. 20. (Third conditional) If we __________________ (not have) an argument, we__________________ (not be) late. 21. (Second conditional) If you __________________ (arrive) early, it__________________ (be) less stressful. 22. (Third conditional) If I __________________ (not go) to the party, I________________ (not meet) Amanda. 23. (Second conditional) If Julie __________________ (like) chocolate, I__________________ (give) her some. 24. (Second conditional) If Luke __________________ (live) in the UK, I__________________ (see) him more often. 25. (Third conditional) If the children _____________ (not eat) all that chocolate, they______________ (feel) sick. 26. (First conditional) If they __________________ (not / arrive) soon, we__________________ (be) late. 27. (Third conditional) If she _______________ (study) Mandarin, she_______________ (go) to Beijing. 28. (Second conditional) If we __________________ (not be) so tired, we__________________ (go) out. 29. (First conditional) If you __________________ (buy) the present, I__________________ (wrap) it up. 30. (First conditional) If Lucy __________________ (not quit) her job soon, she________________ (go) crazy.
Answers:
1. (First conditional) If we don’t work harder, we won’t pass the exam. 2. (Third conditional) If the students hadn’t been late for the exam, they would have passed. 3. (Third conditional) If the weather hadn’t been so cold, we would have gone to the beach. 4. (Second conditional) If she had her laptop with her, she would email me. 5. (First conditional) If she doesn’t go to the meeting, I won’t go either. 6. (Third conditional) If the baby had slept better last night, I wouldn’t have been so tired. 7. (First conditional) If the teacher gives us lots of homework this weekend, I won’t be happy. 8. (Second conditional) If Lucy had enough time, she would travel more. 9. (First conditional) If the children don’t eat soon, they’ll be grumpy. 10. (First conditional) If I don’t go to bed soon, I’ll be tired in the morning. 11. (Second conditional) If I wanted a new car, I would buy one. 12. (Second conditional) If José didn’t speak good French, he wouldn’t move to Paris. 13. (First conditional) If John drinks too much coffee, he’ll get ill. 14. (Third conditional) If we had tidied our flat, we wouldn’t have lost our keys. 15. (Third conditional) If Luke hadn’t sent flowers to his mother, she wouldn’t have been happy. 16. (Second conditional) If the children were in bed, I would be able to have a bath. 17. (Second conditional) If you weren’t so stubborn, we wouldn’t have so many arguments! 18. (Third conditional) If Julie hadn’t gone to Sweden, she would have gone to Germany. 19. (First conditional) If she goes to the library, she’ll study more. 20. (Third conditional) If we hadn’t had an argument, we wouldn’t have been late. 21. (Second conditional) If you arrived early, it would be less stressful. 22. (Third conditional) If I hadn’t gone to the party, I wouldn’t have met Amanda. 23. (Second conditional) If Julie liked chocolate, I would give her some. 24. (Second conditional) If Luke lived in the UK, I would see him more often. 25. (Third conditional) If the children hadn’t eaten all that chocolate, they wouldn’t have felt sick. 26. (First conditional) If they don’t arrive soon, we’ll be late. 27. (Third conditional) If she had studied Mandarin, she would have gone to Beijing. 28. (Second conditional) If we weren’t so tired, we would go out. 29. (First conditional) If you buy the present, I’ll wrap it up. 30. (First conditional) If Lucy doesn’t quit her job soon, she’ll go crazy.
Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.
Originally called infinitesimal calculus or “the calculus of infinitesimals”, it has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus.
The former concerns instantaneous rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while the latter concerns the accumulation of quantities and areas under or between curves. These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus, and they make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.
Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Later work, including codifying the idea of limits, put these developments on a more solid conceptual footing. Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering, and social science.
We presently view the nature of the universe very differently than did our ancestors.
Throughout most of human history, it was believed that there was one set of principles which applied to the events that happened here on Earth, and a very different set of principles which governed the rest of the universe.
The behavior of the stars and planets, which were thought of as the heavens, were seen to be fundamentally different from the behavior of objects in our everyday lives here on Earth. This view of the universe changed forever with the theories of Isaac Newton.
Isaac Newton believed that there were three laws of motion that applied to all objects here on Earth, and that also equally applied to all objects everywhere in the universe. According to Newton, the gravitational force here on Earth, which caused objects to fall to the ground in our everyday lives, is also the exact same gravitational force which caused the planets to orbit the sun.
In Newton’s view, there were no longer two different sets of laws that applied to the heavens and to the Earth, but one set of laws that applied to all objects everywhere. There is another story very similar to this.
We once had a set of laws for magnetism and electricity, which governed the behavior of magnets and the flow of current through a wire. And we had another very different set of laws for optics, which governed how light passes through lenses and bounces off mirrors. Then, James Clerk Maxwell came up with the theory that light is actually just a wave of electric and magnetic fields.
Maxwell’s laws consisted of just one set of rules that not only explained all of electricity and magnetism, but also explained all of optics and the behavior of light. Throughout history, regardless of the subject matter, this pattern has been repeated time and again.
The more our knowledge advances, the greater the number of seemingly unrelated phenomena. we are able to explain using fewer and fewer laws. This has led some people to speculate that perhaps one day we will discover just one set of laws that are able to explain all phenomena everywhere in the universe.
Now, We know that Newton’s theory of gravity and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism are actually incorrect.
According to general relativity of Einstein, gravity is not a force. it’s a space time curve or it is due to the fact that objects with mass cause a curvature in spacetime. According to quantum mechanics, electric and magnetic fields do not actually exist, and light is composed of particles which we call photons. According to general relativity, objects moving in straight lines through curved spacetime appear curved to us. Creating the illusion of a gravitational force.
According to quantum mechanics, photons exchanged between charged particles create forces, thereby creating the illusion of electric and magnetic fields. The predictions of Newton’s law of gravity are now explained by Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which also explains many additional new phenomena, such as how gravity affects the flow of time, and the existence of black holes, where time seems to stop completely. Similarly, the predictions of Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism are now fully explained with quantum mechanics, which also explains many additional phenomena, such as the photo electric effect, quantum tunneling, and the behavior of atoms and molecules.
Newton’s law of gravity and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism appeared to be correct to us only because their predictions gave very good approximations under most of the conditions that we were typically able to observe. In exactly the same way, it is possible that general relativity and quantum mechanics are similarly also only approximations to the true fundamental laws that actually govern the universe.
If this is the case, could this one true set of fundamental laws of physics provide us with a single unified explanation for everything in the universe? There are some people who believe that everything in the universe, including human societies, are composed of atoms and molecules which behave in accordance to the laws of physics, and that the fundamental laws of physics are therefore responsible for the probabilities of every phenomena in existence, from the flow of human history to the details of our individual lives.
However, there are many other people who strongly disagree with this view, and who believe that there are some phenomena in the universe, such as the consciousness of the mind, which can never be just the product of atoms and molecules behaving in accordance to physical laws.
In any case, regardless of which point of view is correct, even if the fundamental laws of physics are not literally responsible for the behavior of everything in the universe, they are still nevertheless responsible for the behavior of a very large part of the universe, if not the entire universe.
We presently already know how to explain many biological processes entirely in terms of the underlying chemical reactions inside the cells, and we already know how to explain many chemical reactions entirely in terms of underlying interactions of the atoms and molecules, which behave in accordance to the known laws of physics. And therefore, when we study physics, we are studying the foundation of chemistry, biology, and everything that exists and that will ever exist in the future, or at the very least, almost everything.
It is possible to get through life without ever studying physics, as human beings created magnificent works of architecture and engineering for thousands of years before anyone ever heard of Isaac Newton, James Maxwell, or Albert Einstein. And there are many cases where viewing a phenomena in terms of the laws of physics can actually take us further away from understanding it.
As one example, a computer is based on the operation of logic gates, which have inputs and outputs that can either be logic high or logic low. These logic gates are based on the operation of transistors, and the operation of these transistors is based on the laws of quantum mechanics. The problem though, is that even if we are fully aware of everything we can know about the position and momentum of all the particles inside the transistors through the laws of quantum mechanics, we may still completely miss the logical meaning that the circuit signifies. This is the same way in which a detailed analysis of the atoms and molecules inside a neon sign will never tell us that the sign spells Joe’s Diner.
Nevertheless, if we never study physics, then we are at a significant disadvantage, even for the tasks that we think that we already know how to do. As an analogy, suppose we need to be able to add two numbers together. One approach is to try to memorize the sum of every possible combination of numbers that we will ever wish to add.
This approach may work if there are only a few combinations of numbers that we care about, but this approach becomes more and more difficult as the amount of numbers that we care about increases and we will never be able to memorize every possible combination since there are an infinite amount. Fortunately, there is a second approach to this problem and this is to learn the rule for long addition.
Once we learn this fundamental rule, then we will always be able to add any two numbers together even if we have never seen them before. In exactly the same way, there are many fields of knowledge where people have spent a lot of effort trying to memorize every new scenario and piece of information that they encounter. Then they can accomplish far more by just learning and understanding a very small number of general principles. Once the general principles are understood, all the other principles can be derived from them.
And the most general principles of the universe are the laws of physics and mathematics. It is only the study of the fundamental laws of physics which made possible many technologies that were unimaginable to our ancestors, but that we now rely on in our everyday lives. As was discussed earlier, all computers and digital electronics are based on the operation of transistors and the development of transistors was possible as the result of an understanding of quantum mechanics.
As another example, global positioning satellites can operate properly only by taking into account the equations of general relativity for how gravity affects the rate at which time flows. There is another important reason for learning about the fundamental laws of physics that go well beyond their practical usefulness. Curiosity about the nature of the universe we live in and this curiosity may take us to discoveries far beyond our wildest imaginations. As an example, Newton’s laws accurately predicted the behavior of objects here on earth, such as the trajectory of cannonballs, and his laws also accurately predicted the orbits of the planets. All planets except for two – Uranus and Mercury.
Uranus had irregularities in its orbit that deviated from what Newton predicted. It was then theorized that these irregularities may be due to the gravitational attraction on Uranus by other planets beyond Uranus’s orbit that had not yet been discovered. Calculations were performed based on Newton’s law of gravity to determine where the location of such a new planet would have to be in order to explain these irregularities in Uranus’s orbit. When the telescopes were then pointed in this direction, they did indeed discover a new planet, exactly where the calculations had predicted. The planet was named Neptune.
The ability of Newton’s theory to predict the existence of a planet before it was even observed was an accomplishment that had never been done before in all of human history. This was therefore seen as further confirmation that Newton’s law of gravity must be correct. But there was still the issue of Mercury. Nevertheless, just as an explanation consistent with Newton’s law of gravity was found for the orbit of Uranus, it was believed that one day in the future, a similar explanation would be found for Mercury, the world waited patiently for this explanation. Which never came.
At the beginning of the 20th century, for reasons completely unrelated to the orbit of Mercury, Albert Einstein developed the general theory of relativity. Einstein’s theory was able to make all the same correct predictions that Newton’s theory was able to make, but unlike Newton, Einstein also correctly predicted the orbit of the planet Mercury. Einstein’s theory of general relativity didn’t just make better predictions. It stated that the true nature of time and space are far more mysterious than anything any science fiction writer has ever been able to come up with. For example, Einstein’s theory of relativity states that there is no universal moment of time called now that everyone can agree on.
Different observers can disagree on whether or not two events happened at the same time, and no observer is more correct than any other. Two different observers can also each believe that the other person’s clock is running slower than their own, and they would both be equally correct. And both observers would be equally correct in believing that they are standing still, and that the rest of the universe is moving around them. The predictions of general relativity have been tested numerous times in many different ways.
For example, atomic clocks in orbit have been compared to atomic clocks here on the ground, and the decay times of particles moving relative to us at near the speed of light have been compared to the decay times of particles which are at rest relative to us. The results of the experiments have always been exactly what Einstein’s theory predicted. But just as Newton’s theory was not initially able to fully explain the behavior of Uranus or Mercury, there are also two phenomena that Einstein’s theory is not presently able to fully explain.
We have called these two phenomena dark energy and dark matter. Dark matter deals with the fact that the amount of matter we are able to observe in each galaxy is far less than what it would need to possess in order for gravity to hold the galaxy together, given the galaxy’s rate of rotation. Dark energy deals with the fact that the rate of expansion of the universe is accelerating rather than slowing down as we would have expected. Perhaps these two phenomena may one day be explained similarly to the way that the orbit of Uranus was explained.
Uranus’s orbit didn’t really violate Newton’s laws, and it was simply necessary to take into account the presence of another planet, Neptune, that we previously didn’t know about. Similarly, the existence of dark matter, for example, may simply be due to the presence of subatomic particles that we didn’t yet know about, and Einstein’s general theory of relativity would not be violated. On the other hand, it could also be that dark matter and dark energy are instead analogous to the orbit of Mercury.
The orbit of Mercury was evidence we had all along that Newton’s laws of motion gave an incomplete picture of the true nature of time and space. Similarly, dark matter and dark energy may be evidence already in our possession that the true nature of reality is far more remarkable, and even far more mysterious than anything we can presently imagine within the confines of general relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, one of the possible theories behind dark matter is that its effects are really the result of parallel universes that don’t interact with each other in any way other than gravity.
The matter in the parallel universes would be gravitationally attracted to the matter in our universe, and hence the galaxies of nearby parallel universes would tend to form at the same locations as the galaxies in our universe. The gravitational attraction from the galaxies in these parallel universes would cause our galaxies to appear to us to have more mass than they really do, which corresponds to what we can presently observe.
All the different universes together would constitute what would be called a multiverse. Each planet in our universe has a different climate, but all of them are subject to the laws of physics of our universe. In exactly the same way, it is possible that different universes have different laws of physics, but that they are all subject to a new set of fundamental physical laws that govern the entire multiverse as a whole.
Just as only a tiny percentage of planets in our universe have climates that are suitable for life as we know it, it could be that only a tiny percentage of universes in the multiverse have laws of physics that are suitable for life as we know it. Though, the existence of life does not necessarily have to be limited to life as we understand it. The multiverse may give rise to forms of intelligent life so diverse that none of them would ever be able to imagine any of the others.
All of this is pure speculation, as we presently have no observational data of other universes. Nevertheless, it is good to keep in mind that although human civilization has existed for thousands of years, Newton and Maxwell formulated their theories only a few hundred years ago. It is only in the 20th century that general relativity and quantum mechanics were discovered. We have come a long way since we believed that the laws of physics here on Earth were different than the laws of physics for the stars and planets. But we also still have a long way to go.
Future generations may look back at our present understanding of the universe, much the same way we now look back at the view that the Earth is at the center of the universe, resting on the back of a giant turtle.
@. Jakaria went to the hospital to see his grandmother.
We should not use articles before the proper noun.
01
Lakes
Lake Geneva, Lake Placids
02
Mountains
Mount Fuji, Mount Everest
03
Continents
Europe, Asia
04
Most Countries
England, Sweden, Bangladesh
05
States
Toronto, California, Darjeeling
06
Division, City
London, Dhaka, Paris
07
Islands
Bali, Hawaii
08
Street Names
Green Road, Main Street, 5th Avenue
Use Articles for UK (United Kingdom)
When referring to the United Kingdom (UK), you can use different articles depending on the context and the specific word that follows.
The – Use “the” when referring to the UK as a whole or as a singular noun.
Such as: I visited the UK last year.
A – Use “a” when using UK as an adjective to describe something.
Such as: She has a UK driving license.
An – Similar to “a” use “an” before UK when it precedes a vowel sound.
Such as: He’s an English teacher from the UK.
Use Articles for Netherlands
When referring to “Netherlands” you can use the definite article “the” before it. So, you would say “the Netherlands.”
The use of the definite article is common with country names that have plural forms or names that include certain geographical features like seas, rivers, or mountain ranges.
Such as:
I’m planning a trip to the Netherlands.
The tulip fields in the Netherlands are beautiful.
Amsterdam is a popular city in the Netherlands.
Practice of Articles
Ex-01 Q Shahid will take train from next stop. A Shahid will take a train from the next stop. Ex-02 Q Painter drew life-sized portrait of Salman Shah. A The painter drew a life-sized portrait of Salman Shah. Ex-03 Q The book is about man who lives on small island. A The book is about a man who lives on a small island. Ex-04 Q They went on expedition to North. A They went on an expedition to the North. Ex-05 Q The team organized friendly match with Presidents of both countries. A The team organized a friendly match with the Presidents of both countries. Ex-06 Q Are you coming to party next Sunday? A Are you coming to the party next Sunday? Ex-07 Q Sahara is in northern part of Africa. A The Sahara is in the northern part of Africa. Ex-08 Q Famous poem ‘Old to a Nightingale’ is written by Romantic poet John Keats. A The famous poem ‘Old to a Nightingale’ is written by the Romantic poet John Keats. Ex-09 Q Jack of all trades is master of none. A A Jack of all trades is master of none. A A Jack of all trades is a master of none. Ex-10 Q I have fixed appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday. A I have fixed an appointment with the doctor I talked about yesterday. A I have a fixed appointment with the doctor I talked about yesterday. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 2 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 2 Ex-11 Q We started early in morning. A We started early in the morning. Ex-12 Q Sun rises in east. A Sun rises in the east. Ex-13 Q While there is life there is hope. A While there is life there is hope. Ex-14 Q Brave soldier lost his arm in battle. A The brave soldier lost his arm in the battle. A The brave soldier lost his arm in battle. Ex-15 Q Moon shone through night. A The Moon shone through the night. Ex-16 Q Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity. A Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity. Ex-17 Q Priest was old Brahmin. A The priest was an old Brahmin. Ex-18 Q Man cannot survive without water. A Man cannot survive without water. Ex-19 Q Have you never seen elephant? A Have you never seen an elephant? Ex-20 Q Singer was old man. A The singer was an old man. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 3 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 3 Ex-21 Q It is big decision to choose an university. A It is a big decision to choose a university. Ex-22 Q I’ll call you back in a hour. A I’ll call you back in an hour. Ex-23 Q History naming of Dhaka is interesting. A The history naming of Dhaka is interesting. Ex-24 Q Although almost all insects have six legs, a immature insect may not have any. A Although almost all insects have six legs, an immature insect may not have any. Ex-25 Q Philosophy of ancient Greeks has been preserved in the scholarly writing of western civilization. A Philosophy of the ancient Greeks has been preserved in the scholarly writing of the western civilization. Ex-26 Q I like cat very much. A I like a cat very much. Ex-27 Q There is some juice on table for you. A There is some juice on the table for you. Ex-28 Q Hope you have nice day. A Hope you have a nice day. Ex-29 Q Nur likes European man. A Nur likes a European man. Ex-30 Q I want to eat a orange. A I want to eat an orange. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 4 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 4 Ex-31 Q Jakaria would like to live large village. A Jakaria would like to live a large village. Ex-32 Q Earth moves around sun. A The earth moves around the sun. Ex-33 Q I read good book. Book was about how to use articles correctly in the English. A I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English. Ex-34 Q I have bought a new pens and pencils at store. A I have bought new pens and pencils at the store. Ex-35 Q A book that I read last night was great. A The book that I read last night was great. Ex-36 Q My son bought cat. I am looking after cat while he is on vacation. A My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation. Ex-37 Q He was only person to drop out of the study. A He was the only person to drop out of the study. Ex-38 Q I saw elephant at the zoo. When I was at the zoo, I saw elephant! A I saw the elephant at the zoo. When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant! Ex-39 Q Spanish are known for their warm hospitality. A The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality. Ex-40 Q Many student was present in meeting. A Many a student was present in the meeting. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 5 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 5 Ex-41 Q Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to a city center? A Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to the city center? Ex-42 Q I like this room but I don’t like a color of carpet. A I like this room but I don’t like the color of the carpet. Ex-43 Q Which is largest in Japan? A Which is the largest in Japan? Ex-44 Q My father is a M.A in the mathematics. A My father is an M.A in mathematics. Ex-45 Q I live in old house near station. A I live in an old house near the station. Ex-46 Q Yesterday I met an European playing with boy. A Yesterday I met a European playing with a boy. Ex-47 Q Our neighbors have the cat and the dog. A Our neighbors have a cat and a dog. Ex-48 Q Professor William is a expert in the mathematics. A Professor William is an expert in mathematics. Ex-49 Q Do you have an use for this empty seat? A Do you have a use for this empty seat? Ex-50 Q Poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. A The poverty of people of the rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. A The poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 6 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 6 Ex-51 Q Let’s just wait an year or two before applying for the internships. A Let’s just wait a year or two before applying for the internships. Ex-52 Q The Pacific Ocean is one of a five oceans of an world. A The Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of the world. Ex-53 Q I will take an bus from next stop. A I will take a bus from the next stop. Ex-54 Q Please give me a cake that is on the counter. A Please give me the cake that is on the counter. A Please give me a cake that is on the counter. Ex-55 Q An ink in my pen is red. A The ink in my pen is red. Ex-56 Q My sister will come in the day or two. A My sister will come in a day or two. Ex-57 Q Some of a parking space at back are empty. A Some of the parking spaces at the back are empty. Ex-58 Q Work of many people made the project a success. A The work of many people made the project a success. Ex-59 Q One of a student said, “Professor is late today. A One of the student said, “the Professor is late today. Ex-60 Q Sahara is in northern part of the Africa A The Sahara is in the northern part of Africa. Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 7 Articles Practice Note Part 0209 Page No 7 Ex-61 Q I think that people should protect environment. A I think that people should protect the environment. Ex-62 Q A lot of children are accessing internet unsupervised. A A lot of children are accessing the internet unsupervised. Ex-63 Q Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of world. A The Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of the world. Ex-64 Q I was in little town, but when I was 12 my family moved to capital. A I was in a little town, but when I was 12 my family moved to the capital. Ex-65 Q I have fixed appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday. A I have fixed an appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday. Ex-66 Q According to graph, number of working people has doubled. A According to the graph, the number of working people has doubled. Ex-67 Q Poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. A The poverty of people of the rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. Ex-68 Q Is there post office near house you live in? A Is there a post office near the house you live in? Ex-69 Q I was walking to school when I saw cat. A I was walking to school when I saw a cat. Ex-70 Q It is big decision to choose university. A It is a big decision to choose a university.
Find out and apply where Articles are necessary. Put a Cross (x) where article is not needed:
1. Shahed will take train from next stop. 2. Painter drew life-sized portrait of Salman Shah. 3. The book is about man who lives on small island. 4. They went on expedition to North. 5. The team organized friendly match with Presidents of both the countries. 6. Are you coming to party next Saturday? 7. Sahara is in northern part of Africa. 8. Famous poem ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ is written by Romantic poet John Keats. 9. Jack of all trades is master of none. 10. I have fixed appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday. 11. We started early in morning. 12. Sun rises in east. 13. While there is life there is hope. 14. Brave soldier lost his arm in battle. 15. Moon shone through night. 16. Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity. 17. Priest was old Brahmin. 18. Man cannot survive without water. 19. Have you never seen elephant? 20. Singer was old man
Answer:
1. Shahed will take a train from the next stop. 2. The painter drew a life-sized portrait of Salman Shah. 3. The book is about a man who lives on a small island. 4. They went on an expedition to the North. 5. The team organized a friendly match with the Presidents of both the countries. 6. Are you coming to the party next Saturday? 7. The Sahara is in the northern part of Africa. 8. The Famous poem ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ is written by the Romantic poet John Keats. 9. A jack of all trades is master of none. 10. I have fixed an appointment with the doctor I talked about yesterday. 11. We started early in the morning. 12. The sun rises in the east. 13. While there is life there is hope. 14. The brave soldier lost his arm in the battle. 15. The moon shone through the night. 16. Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity. 17. The priest was an old Brahmin. 18. Man cannot survive without water. 19. Have you never seen an elephant? 20. The singer was an old man
Practice Question:
1. Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to a city center? 2. I like this room but I don’t like a color of carpet. 3. Which is largest city in Japan? 4. My father is a M.A. in the mathematics. 5. I live in old house near station. 6. Yesterday I met an European playing with boy. 7. Our neighbors have the cat and the dog. 8. Professor William is a expert in the mathematics. 9. Do you have an use for this empty seat? 10. Poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. 11. Let’s just wait an year or two before applying for the internships. 12. The Pacific Ocean is one of a five oceans of an world. 13. I will take an bus from next stop. 14. Please give me a cake that is on the counter. 15. An ink in my pen is red. 16. My sister will come in the day or two. 17. Some of a parking space at back are empty. 18. Work of many people made the project a success. 19. One of a student said, “Professor is late today.” 20. Sahara is in northern part of the Africa
Answer:
1. Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to the city center? 2. I like this room but I don’t like the color of the carpet. 3. Which is the largest city in Japan? 4. My father is an M.A. in x mathematics. 5. I live in an old house near the station. 6. Yesterday I met a European playing with a boy. 7. Our neighbors have a cat and a dog. 8. Professor William is an expert in x mathematics. 9. Do you have a use for this empty seat? 10. The poverty of people of the rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city. 11. Let’s just wait a year or two before applying for x internships. 12. The Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of the world. 13. I will take a bus from the next stop. 14. Please give me the cake that is on the counter. 15. The ink in my pen is red. 16. My sister will come in a day or two. 17. Some of the parking space at the back are empty. 18. The work of many people made the project a success. 19. One of the students said, “the professor is late today.” 20. The Sahara is in the northern part of x Africa
Practice of Articles
Ex-01
Q
Shahid will take train from next stop.
A
Shahid will take a train from the next stop.
Ex-02
Q
Painter drew life-sized portrait of Salman Shah.
A
The painter drew a life-sized portrait of Salman Shah.
Ex-03
Q
The book is about man who lives on small island.
A
The book is about a man who lives on a small island.
Ex-04
Q
They went on expedition to North.
A
They went on an expedition to the North.
Ex-05
Q
The team organized friendly match with Presidents of both countries.
A
The team organized a friendly match with the Presidents of both countries.
Ex-06
Q
Are you coming to party next Sunday?
A
Are you coming to the party next Sunday?
Ex-07
Q
Sahara is in northern part of Africa.
A
The Sahara is in the northern part of Africa.
Ex-08
Q
Famous poem ‘Old to a Nightingale’ is written by Romantic poet John Keats.
A
The famous poem ‘Old to a Nightingale’ is written bythe Romantic poet John Keats.
Ex-09
Q
Jack of all trades is master of none.
A
A Jack of all trades is master of none.
A
A Jack of all trades is a master of none.
Ex-10
Q
I have fixed appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday.
A
I have fixed anappointment with the doctor I talked about yesterday.
A
I have afixed appointment with thedoctor I talked about yesterday.
Ex-11
Q
We started early in morning.
A
We started early in the morning.
Ex-12
Q
Sun rises in east.
A
Sun rises in the east.
Ex-13
Q
While there is life there is hope.
A
While there is life there is hope.
Ex-14
Q
Brave soldier lost his arm in battle.
A
The brave soldier lost his armin thebattle.
A
The brave soldier lost his arm in battle.
Ex-15
Q
Moon shone through night.
A
TheMoon shone through the night.
Ex-16
Q
Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity.
A
Wild animals suffer when they are kept in captivity.
Ex-17
Q
Priest was old Brahmin.
A
The priest was an old Brahmin.
Ex-18
Q
Man cannot survive without water.
A
Man cannot survive without water.
Ex-19
Q
Have you never seen elephant?
A
Have you never seen an elephant?
Ex-20
Q
Singer was old man.
A
The singer was an old man.
Ex-21
Q
It is big decision to choose an university.
A
It is a big decision to choose a university.
Ex-22
Q
I’ll call you back in a hour.
A
I’ll call you back in an hour.
Ex-23
Q
History naming of Dhaka is interesting.
A
The history naming of Dhaka is interesting.
Ex-24
Q
Although almost all insects have six legs, a immature insect may not have any.
A
Although almost all insects have six legs, an immature insect may not have any.
Ex-25
Q
Philosophy of ancient Greeks has been preserved in the scholarly writing of western civilization.
A
Philosophy of the ancient Greeks has been preserved in the scholarly writing of the western civilization.
Ex-26
Q
I like cat very much.
A
I like a cat very much.
Ex-27
Q
There is some juice on table for you.
A
There is some juice on the table for you.
Ex-28
Q
Hope you have nice day.
A
Hope you have a nice day.
Ex-29
Q
Nur likes European man.
A
Nur likes a European man.
Ex-30
Q
I want to eat a orange.
A
I want to eat an orange.
Ex-31
Q
Jakaria would like to live large village.
A
Jakaria would like to live a large village.
Ex-32
Q
Earth moves around sun.
A
The earth moves around the sun.
Ex-33
Q
I readgood book. Book was about how to use articles correctly inthe English.
A
I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English.
Ex-34
Q
I have bought anew pens and pencils at store.
A
I have bought new pens and pencils at the store.
Ex-35
Q
A book that I read last night was great.
A
The book that I read last night was great.
Ex-36
Q
My son bought cat. I am looking after cat while he is on vacation.
A
My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation.
Ex-37
Q
He was only person to drop out of the study.
A
He was the only person to drop out of the study.
Ex-38
Q
I saw elephant at the zoo. When I was at the zoo, I saw elephant!
A
I saw the elephant at the zoo. When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!
Ex-39
Q
Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.
A
The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.
Ex-40
Q
Many student was present in meeting.
A
Many a student was present in the meeting.
Ex-41
Q
Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to a city center?
A
Excuse me, can you tell me how to get to the city center?
Ex-42
Q
I like this room but I don’t like a color of carpet.
A
I like this room but I don’t like the color of thecarpet.
Ex-43
Q
Which is largest in Japan?
A
Which is the largest in Japan?
Ex-44
Q
My father is a M.A in the mathematics.
A
My father is an M.A in mathematics.
Ex-45
Q
I live in old house near station.
A
I live in an old house near the station.
Ex-46
Q
Yesterday I met an European playing with boy.
A
Yesterday I met a European playing with aboy.
Ex-47
Q
Our neighbors have the cat and the dog.
A
Our neighbors have a cat and a dog.
Ex-48
Q
Professor William is a expert in the mathematics.
A
Professor William is an expert in mathematics.
Ex-49
Q
Do you have an use for this empty seat?
A
Do you have a use for this empty seat?
Ex-50
Q
Poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city.
A
The poverty of people of therural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city.
A
The poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city.
Ex-51
Q
Let’s just wait an year or two before applying for the internships.
A
Let’s just wait a year or two before applying for the internships.
Ex-52
Q
The Pacific Ocean is one of a five oceans of anworld.
A
The Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of the world.
Ex-53
Q
I will take an bus from next stop.
A
I will take a bus from thenext stop.
Ex-54
Q
Please give me a cake that is on the counter.
A
Please give me thecake that is on the counter.
A
Please give me acake that is on the counter.
Ex-55
Q
An ink in my pen is red.
A
The ink in my pen is red.
Ex-56
Q
My sister will come in the day or two.
A
My sister will come in a day or two.
Ex-57
Q
Some of a parking space at back are empty.
A
Some of the parking spaces at theback are empty.
Ex-58
Q
Work of many people made the project a success.
A
The work of many people made the project a success.
Ex-59
Q
One of a student said, “Professor is late today.
A
One of thestudent said, “theProfessor is late today.
Ex-60
Q
Sahara is in northern part of the Africa
A
The Sahara is inthe northern part of Africa.
Ex-61
Q
I think that people should protect environment.
A
I think that people should protectthe environment.
Ex-62
Q
A lot of children are accessing internet unsupervised.
A
A lot of children are accessingthe internet unsupervised.
Ex-63
Q
Pacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of world.
A
ThePacific Ocean is one of the five oceans of theworld.
Ex-64
Q
I was in little town, but when I was 12 my family moved to capital.
A
I was ina little town, but when I was 12 my family moved tothe capital.
Ex-65
Q
I have fixed appointment with doctor I talked about yesterday.
A
I have fixed anappointment with doctor I talked about yesterday.
Ex-66
Q
According to graph, number of working people has doubled.
A
According tothe graph, thenumber of working people has doubled.
Ex-67
Q
Poverty of people of rural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city.
A
The poverty of people of therural areas is not as visible as that of people in the city.
Facebook ads are posts that businesses pay for to show Facebook users products or services.
They come in various formats, such as images, videos, or carousels. Like Instagram, Facebook ads appear throughout the app, including in users’ feeds, Stories, Messenger, Marketplace, and more.
Facebook ads are typically targeted to users based on their:
Demographics,
Location,
Interests,
Profile information and online activity.
Types of Facebook ads
Knowing how to advertise on Facebook starts with knowing the types of Facebook ads available to you.
You can choose between different Facebook ad types and formats to suit your campaign goals, including:
Variables or Identifiers are the names that refer to sections of memory into which data can be stored.
Mainly Two types
❏ Local or internal Variables ❏ Global or external Variables
Skeleton of C Programming
#include <stdio.h>int main ()
{printf ("Hello Jakaria!\n");return 0;
}
@. To print a new line use = \n
@. To print a new tab use = \t
@. If you want to add a extra header: [#include <limits.h>]
Data Type and Variables
No
Data Type
Keyword
Size in bytes
Range
Place hold
01
Character
char
1
-128 to 127
%c
02
Unsigned Character
Unsigned char
1
0 to 255
%c
03
Integer
int
2 or 4
-32768 to 32767 or-2147483648 to 2147483647
%d
04
Unsigned Integer
Unsigned int
2 or 4
0 to 65535 or0 to 4,294,967,295
%u
05
Long Integer
long int
4
-2147483648 to 2147483647
%d
06
Long Long Integer
long long int
8
(-2^63) to (-2^63-1)
%d
07
Float
float
4
1.2E-38 to 3.4E +38
%f
08
Double
double
8
2.3E-308 to 1.7E +308
%lf
@. 1 Bit = 8 Byte
Use some variables
#include <stdio.h>int main(){printf ("My account balance is %d taka\n", 50000);printf("%d+%d=%d\n", 10, 20, 30);printf("The star character is : %c\n", '*');printf("My height is %f feet and weight is %d kg.\n", 5.6, 60); int x = 10; int y = 20;printf("%d+%d=%d\n", x,y, x+y); x=x* y-20;printf("Final value of x is %d \n", x);return 0;}
Details on Data Type
@. Character – %c:
Character is worked by only alphabet. Its value is in 0 – 256.
Only 25 letters write by Character.
Signed char and Unsigned char = 1 byte
@. Integer – %d:
Integer is worked by integer numbers. Its value is in 0 to 65535.
int and Unsigned int = 2 bytes
@. Float – %f:
Integer is worked by Fraction and decimal numbers.
It is showed only 6 digits.
Float = 4 or 32 bytes
@. Double: %lf
Double is worked by big decimal and scientific numbers more than float numbers. (6.44, 8.11, 2*10^2, 5.2*10^14)
It is showed only 16 digits.
Operators, Precedence and Associativity
x = y + z
y = 5 – 5
Here,
Operator: +, -, =, *, /, %, ++, –
Operand: x, y, z
Arithmetic Operators:
These are the operators used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations on operands.
#. Arithmetic Operators are two types:
Unary Operator
Binary Operator
#. Unary Operator:
Operators that operates or works with a single operand are unary operators.
Such as: (z++, –x)
#. Binary Operator:
Operators that operates or works with two operand are binary operators.
Checking if one operand is equal to other operand or not, an opearand is gratien than other operand or not etc.
Such as: (==, >=, <=, <, >, !=)
• > greater than • >= greater than or equal to • < less than • <= less than or equal to • = = equal to • != not equal to
@. Logical Operators:
Logical Operators are used to combine two or more conditions or constraints or to complement the evaluation of the original condition in consideration.
Such as: Logical AND – &&, Logical OR – ||, Logical NOT – !
The result of a logical operator is a boolean value either true of false.
& Logical AND | Logical OR ^ Logical XOR || Short-circuit OR && Short-circuit AND ! Logical unary NOT &= AND Assignment |= OR Assignment ^ = XOR Assignment = = Equal to != Not equal to ?: Ternary if-then-else
#. Incremental or Decremental Operator:
Such as: ++. —
#. Bitwise Operator:
Such as: &, |, ^, <<, >>, ~
~ Bitwise unary NOT & Bitwise AND | Bitwise OR ^ Bitwise XOR >> Shift Right >>> Shift Right zero fill << Shift left & = Bitwise AND Assignment |= Bitwise OR Assignment ^= Bitwise XOR Assignment >>= Shift Right Assignment >>>= Shift Right zero fill Assignment <<= Shift Left Assignment
#. Conditional Operator:
Such as: exp1? exp2: exp3 [ here exp1, exp2, and exp3 is expression]
(expression) ? value if true : value if false (a > b) ? a : b; it is an expression which returns one of two values, a or b. The condition, (a > b), is tested. If it is true the first value, a, is returned. If it is false, the second value, b, is returned.
#. Misc Operator:
Such as: size(), &, [,]
To input data (use of scanf)
#include <stdio.h>int main ()
{int a;int b;printf("Enter First Integer Number: ");scanf("%d", &a);printf("Enter Second Integer Number: ");scanf("%d", &b);printf("Sum Two Integrer = %d", a+b);return 0;
}
C Condition (use of if…else)
#include <stdio.h>int main ()
{int x;printf("Enter Your Number: ");scanf("%d", &x);if (x>50){printf("%d is greater than 50 \n" x);}
else{printf("%d is less than 50 \n" x);}return 0;
}
C Condition (use of if…else if…else)
#include <stdio.h>int main () {int age;printf("Enter value of age: ");scanf("%d", &age);if (age<2){printf("Intant\n");
}else if (age<10){printf("Child\n");
}
else if (age<20){printf("Teenage\n");}
else if (age<30){printf("Adult\n");}
else {printf("%d\n");
}return 0; }
C Switch Case
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int x;
printf("Enter One Integer Number (1-5): ");
scanf("%d", &x);
switch(x){
case 1:
printf("This ID is found: 1\n");
break;
case 2:
printf("This ID is found: 2\n");
break;
case 3:
printf("This ID is found: 3\n");
break;
case 4:
printf("This ID is found: 5\n");
break;
case 5:
printf("This ID is found: 5\n");
break;
default:
printf("This ID is not found.\n"); }
return 0;
}
@. Case 1 = case 2 +4 use kora jay but case 2 + x use kora jay na.
@. Switch case just char and int use kora jay But Float and double use kora jayna.
A set of related activities which lead to the production of a high quality software product.
It is also called the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
@. There is no ideal process:
Different organizations have developed completely different approaches to software development based on their need and capacity.
@. Why a Methodology is Important for Software Engineering?
The oldest software development techniques are of the big bang type and they do not contain any methodology.
In the big bang type, a project is initiated and people with adequate skills are hired to do the project work.
The management in this scenario has no idea how the project will be executed.
They just hope that the people will somehow develop the software product. Since no particular methodology is in place, it is the people who will decide and keep working as per their individual plans.
This kind of technique was used during the early days of software development because there were no well-established software engineering methodologies available at that time.
In this type of software development, the results are unpredictable. Later, software practitioners realized the need for software engineering methodologies. Some methodologies are discussed in the next few sections.
#. When you are building a software product, you implicitly acknowledge that you are building it for commercial or critical use and you are using the most competitive, cost-effective, and sound engineering techniques available.
In order to apply the engineering techniques to build a product, a methodology that has been proven successful and effective in terms of cost, time, quality, and so on is needed.
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
The SDLC is the process of determining how an information system (IS) can support business needs, designing the system, building it, and delivering it to users.
In any given SDLC phase, the project can return to an earlier phase, if necessary. In the systems development life cycle, it is also possible to complete some activities in one phase in parallel with some activities of another phase. Sometimes the life cycle is iterative; that is, phases are repeated as required until an acceptable system is found.
Some systems analysts consider the life cycle to be a spiral, constantly cycling through the phases at different levels of detail, as illustrated in below figure.
@. Figure: SDLC with six phases
(1) Planning and analysis, (2) Design,
(3) Implementation or coding, (4) Testing,
(5) Deployment. (6) Maintenance
There are following six phases in every Software development life cycle model:
@. Planning and analysis:
During this phase, all the relevant information is collected from the customer to develop a product as per their expectation.
Business analyst and Project Manager set up a meeting with the customer to gather all the information like what the customer wants to build, who will be the end-user, what is the purpose of the product. Before building a product a core understanding or knowledge of the product is very important.
Once the requirement is clearly understood, the SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document is created.
This document should be thoroughly understood by the developers and also should be reviewed by the customer for future reference.
@. Design:
Here, the Project Architect will prepare the system design.
He will specify the hardware, system requirement and design the application architecture.
There are 2 parts in the system design: high-level design and low-level design. In high-level design, we design the different blocks of the application.
In low-level design, we write the pseudo-code.
Implementation / Coding: On receiving system design documents, the work is divided in modules/units and actual coding is started. Since, in this phase the code is produced so it is the main focus for the developer. This is the longest phase of the software development life cycle.
Testing: After the code is developed it is tested against the requirements to make sure that the product is actually solving the needs addressed and gathered during the requirements phase. During this phase all types of functional testing like unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing are done as well as non-functional testing are also done.
Deployment: After successful testing the product is delivered / deployed to the customer for their use.
During deployment, there are four widely used strategies i.e., Parallel, Direct, Phased, and Pilot.
Maintenance: Once when the customers starts using the developed system then the actual problems comes up and needs to be solved from time to time. This process where the care is taken for the developed product is known as maintenance. Maintenance is the most important phase of a software life cycle. The effort spent on maintenance is the 60% of the total effort spent to develop a full software. There are basically three types of maintenance :
Corrective Maintenance: This type of maintenance is carried out to correct errors that were not discovered during the product development phase.
Perfective Maintenance: This type of maintenance is carried out to enhance the functionalities of the system based on the customer’s request.
Adaptive Maintenance: Adaptive maintenance is usually required for porting the software to work in a new environment such as work on a new computer platform or with a new operating system.
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Joint application development (JAD) is a structured process in which users, managers, and analysts work together for several days in a series of intensive meetings to specify or review system requirements.
It was developed by IBM in the late 1970s.
The following is a list of typical JAD participants:
JAD participant
Role
JAD project leader
Develops an agenda, acts as a facilitator, and leads the JAD session
Top management
Provides enterprise-level authorization and support for the project
Managers
Provide department-level support for the project and understanding of how the project must support business functions and requirements
Users
Provide operational-level input on current operations, desired changes, input and output requirements, user interface issues, and how the project will support day-to-day tasks
Systems analysts and other IT staff members
Provide technical assistance and resources for JAD team members on issues such as security, backup, hardware, software, and network capability
Recorder
Documents results of JAD sessions and works with systems analyststo build system models and develop CASE tool documentation
JAD Process Steps
Define Session:
Define the purpose, scope, and objectives of the JAD session, selecting the JAD team, invite and obtain commitment to attend sessions from the appropriate stakeholders, and schedule the session. It is important to obtain management commitment to support the process and identify the appropriate stakeholders.
Research Product:
Become more familiar with the product or service, gather preliminary information, obtaining any models.
Prepare:
Prepare any visual aids, developing a realistic agenda, training the recorder, and preparing the meeting room.
Conduct Session:
Follow agenda to gather and document the project needs and requirements.
It is important to ensure all participants are given equal treatment during the process.
Draft the Documents:
Prepare the formal documents.
The information captured in the JAD session is further refined through analysis efforts, open questions or issues discovered through the sessions are resolved, and the final document is returned to stakeholders for review and validation.
Advantages of JAD
This technique allows for the simultaneous gathering and consolidating of large amounts of information.
This technique provides a forum to explore multiple points of view regarding a topic.
This technique produces relatively large amounts of high-quality information in a short period of time.
Disadvantages of JAD
Requires significant planning and scheduling effort.
Requires significant stakeholder commitment of time and effort.
Requires trained and experienced personnel for facilitation and recording.
Some SDLC Methodologies
A number of different SDLC methodologies are used today to guide professionals through their project-based work. In this lecture, I will discuss:
Waterfall Model
Classical Waterfall Model
Parallel Waterfall Model
Waterfall V Model
Spiral Model
Agile Methodologies
Scrum
eXtreme Programming (XP)
Other Practices in Agile:
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Rational Unified Process (RUP)
Heavyweight Methodology Vs Lightweight methodology
@. Heavyweight Methodology
Heavyweight methodologies are considered to be the traditional way of developing software.
These approaches have a tendency to first plan out a large part of the software process in great detail for a long span of time.
This approach follows an engineering discipline where the development is predictive and repeatable.
These methodologies are based on a sequential series of steps, such as requirements definition, solution building, testing and deployment. Heavyweight methodologies require defining and documenting a stable set of requirements at the beginning of a project.
There are many different heavyweight methodologies but I will limit our discussion to the three most significant methodologies.
Such as: Waterfall, Spiral Model and Rational Unified Process.
@. Lightweight methodology
A lightweight methodology is a software development method that has only a few rules and practices, or only ones that are easy to follow.
In contrast, a complex method with many rules is considered a heavyweight methodology.
There are many different lightweight methodologies but I will limit our discussion to the three most significant methodologies.
Such as: Scrum, eXtreme Programming (XP), Rapid Application Development (RAD)
@. Classical Waterfall Model
The first formal description of the waterfall model is often cited as a 1970 article by Winston W. Royce, although Royce did not use the term waterfall in that article.
The earliest use of the term “waterfall” may have been in a 1976 paper by Bell and Thayer.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow; hence it is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model.
Here, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases. The development proceeds to the next phase and there is no turning back.
@. The model has six phases:
#. Requirement Analysis
Capture all the requirements.
Do brainstorming and walkthrough to understand the requirements.
Do the requirements feasibility test to ensure that the requirements are testable or not.
#. System Design
As per the requirements, create the design
Capture the hardware / software requirements.
Document the designs
#. Implementation
As per the design create the programs / code
Integrate the codes for the next phase.
Unit testing of the code
#. System Testing
Integrate the unit tested code and test it to make sure if it works as expected.
Perform all the testing activities (Functional and non-functional) to make sure that the system meets the requirements.
In case of any anomaly, report it.
Report your testing activities.
#. System Deployment
Make sure that the environment is up
Make sure that the test exit criteria are met.
Deploy the application in the respective environment.
Perform a sanity check in the environment after the application is deployed to ensure the application does not break.
#. System maintenance
Make sure that the application is up and running in the respective environment.
Incase user encounters and defect, make sure to note and fix the issues faced.
In case any issue is fixed; the updated code is deployed in the environment.
The application is always enhanced to incorporate more features, update the environment with the latest feature
@. Advantages of the Waterfall Model
The requirements are clearly and accurately stated, they remain unchanged throughout the entire project development;
Detailed documentation of each development stage provides resistance to changes in human resources – a new developer can quickly get all the necessary information;
Careful planning of the project development structure reduces the number of problematic issues;
The start and end points for each phase are set, which makes it easy to measure progress;
The tasks remain as stable as possible throughout the development process;
It provides easy control and transparency for the customer due to a strict reporting system;
Release date for the finished product, as well as its final cost can be calculated prior to development.
@. Drawbacks of the Waterfall Model
It is not desirable for complex project where requirement changes frequently
Testing period comes quite late in the developmental process
Documentation occupies a lot of time of developers and testers
Clients valuable feedback cannot be included with ongoing development phase
Small changes or errors that arise in the completed software may cause a lot of problems
The waterfall method is still preferred by some developers because of its predictability and known costs. You know what you’re paying for and you know when you’re going to get it.
@. When to Use the Waterfall Model
The Waterfall model is appropriate to use in some scenarios.
When quality is more important than cost or schedule.
When requirements are very well known, clear, and fixed.
New version of existing product is needed.
Porting an existing product to a new platform
@. Parallel Waterfall Development
Parallel development reduces the time required to deliver a system.
Here, instead of doing the design and implementation in sequence, a general design for the whole system is performed. Then the project is divided into a series of subprojects that can be designed and implemented in parallel. Once all subprojects are complete, there is a final integration of the separate pieces, and the system is delivered.
It also adds a new problem: If the subprojects are not completely independent, design decisions in one subproject may affect another, and at the project end, integrating the subprojects may be quite challenging.
Waterfall V-Model (Verification and Validation Model)
V-Model is software development model and V-model is also known as Verification and Validation model.
Verification: It involves static analysis technique (review) done without executing code. It is the process of evaluation of the product development phase to find whether specified requirements meet.
Validation: It involves dynamic analysis technique (functional, non-functional), testing done by executing code. Validation is the process to evaluate the software after the completion of the development phase to determine whether software meets the customer expectations and requirements.
It is basically extension of waterfall model but unlike water fall model here in V-model, testing is done simultaneously with the development phase. The main disadvantage of water fall model i.e. the Testing Starts after Development ends. But in V-model the testing start early in life cycle.
The unique of the V-Model is that during each design stage, the corresponding tests are also designed to be implemented later during the testing stages. Thus, during the requirements phase, acceptance tests are designed.
Figure: Waterfall V- Model
There are the various phases of Verification Phase of V-model:
Business requirement analysis: This is the first step where product requirements understood from the customer’s side. This phase contains detailed communication to understand customer’s expectations and exact requirements.
During the requirements phase, acceptance tests are designed.
System Design: Utilizing feedback and user requirement documents created during the requirements phase, this next stage is used to generate a specification document that will outline all technical components such as the data layers, business logic, and so on.
System Tests are also designed during this stage for later use.
Architecture Design: During this stage, specifications are drawn up that detail how the application will link up all its various components, either internally or via outside
integrations. Often this is referred to as high-level design. A high-level design provides an overview of a system, product, service or process.
Integration tests are also developed during this time.
Module Design: This phase consists of all the low-level design for the system, including detailed specifications for how all functional, coded business logic will be implemented, such as models, components, interfaces, and so forth. Low-level design is created based on the high-level design such as data structure for a database storage.
Unit tests should also be created during the module design phase.
Coding Phase: After designing, the coding phase is started. Based on the requirements, a suitable programming language is decided. There are some guidelines and standards for coding. Before checking in the repository, the final build is optimized for better performance, and the code goes through many code reviews to check the performance.
There are the various phases of Validation Phase of V-model:
Unit Testing: In the V-Model, Unit Test Plans (UTPs) are developed during the module design phase. These UTPs are executed to eliminate errors at code level or unit level. A unit is the smallest entity which can independently exist, e.g., a program module. Unit testing verifies that the smallest entity can function correctly when isolated from the rest of the codes/ units.
Integration Testing: Testing devised during the architecture design phase are executed here, ensuring that the system functions across all components and third-party integrations.
System Testing: System Tests Plans are developed during System Design Phase. Unlike Unit and Integration Test Plans, System Tests Plans are composed by the client’s business team. System Test ensures that expectations from an application developer are met.
Acceptance Testing: Acceptance testing is related to the business requirement analysis part. It includes testing the software product in user atmosphere. Acceptance tests reveal the compatibility problems with the different systems, which is available within the user atmosphere. It conjointly discovers the non-functional problems like load and performance defects within the real user atmosphere.
Advantages of the Waterfall V Model
Less bugs: Do testing in every layer
Higher chance of success over the waterfall model due to the development of test plans early on during the life cycle.
Works well for small projects where requirements are easily understood.
Drawbacks of the Waterfall V-model:
If any changes happen in midway, then the test documents along with requirement documents has to be updated.
High confidence of customer is required for choosing the V-Shaped model approach. Since, no prototypes are produced, there is a very high risk involved in meeting customer expectations.
When to use the V-model:
The V-shaped model should be used for small to medium-sized projects where requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
Spiral Model
Spiral models initially were suggested in the 1990s by Barry Boehm – a software engineering professor.
Spiral Model is a combination of Iterative Development Model and Waterfall Model with very high emphasis on risk analysis. It allows for incremental releases of the product, or incremental refinement through each iteration around the spiral.
In a few words, Spiral Model can be characterized by repeatedly iterating a set of elemental development processes and eliminating risk, so it is actively being reduced.
This model is best used for large projects which involves continuous enhancements. There are specific activities which are done in one iteration (spiral) where the output is a small prototype of the large software. The same activities are then repeated for all the spirals till the entire software is build.
To understand how you can get your goals using Spiral Model, let’s take a look at this diagram:
Phases of Spiral Model
Phase 1: Planning objectives or identify alternative solutions
In this stage, requirements are collected from customers and then the aims are recognized, elaborated as well as analyzed at the beginning of developing the project. If the iterative round is more than one, then an alternative solution is proposed in the same quadrant. It is necessary to define alternatives for implementation (e.g. design A vs. design B) and to determine the framework conditions as well as costs or time expenditure.
Phase 2: Identifying and resolving the risks
As the process goes to the second quadrant, all likely solutions are sketched, and then the best solution among them gets select. Then the different types of risks linked with the chosen solution
are recognized and resolved through the best possible approach. As the spiral goes to the end of this quadrant, a project prototype is put up for the most excellent and likely solution.
Phase 3: Develop the next level of product
As the development progress goes to the third quadrant, the well-known and mostly required features are developed as well as verified with the testing methodologies. As this stage proceeds to the end of this third quadrant, new software or the next version of existing software is ready to deliver.
Phase 4: Planning the next cycle
As the development process proceeds in the fourth quadrant, the customers appraise the developed version of the project and reports if any further changes are required. At last, planning for the subsequent phase is initiated.
Advantages of the Spiral Model
Suitable for large projects: Spiral models are recommended when the project is large, bulky or complex to develop.
Risk Handling: There are a lot of projects that have un-estimated risks involved with them. For such projects, the spiral model is the best SDLC model to pursue because it can analyze risk as well as handling risks at each phase of development.
Customer Satisfaction: Customers can witness the development of product at every stage and thus, they can let themselves habituated with the system and throw feedbacks accordingly before the final product is made.
Requirements flexibility: All the specific requirements needed at later stages can be included precisely if the development is done using this model.
Strong documentation control
Disadvantage of the Spiral Model
Spiral model is not good for small projects.
This model is more complex and difficult to understand if a new employee is entered in the project development.
It can be much expensive.
Fast development and software is built at the SDLC .
Not defined end points of the project , so it can take a long time to develop or iterations can be go infinitely.
When to use Spiral Model
For medium and big projects.
For high-risk projects.
Requirements are complex
Users are unsure of their needs
If frequent changes required in the project.
Iterative development Approach
Iterative development is when an attempt is made to develop a product with basic features, which then goes through a refinement process successively to add to the richness in features.
With each iteration, additional features can be designed, developed and tested until there is a fully functional software application ready to be deployed to customers.
First, let’s look at simple definitions of the two terms:
Iterative – performing repeatedly, i.e. adding new functionality in a repetitive or cyclic manner
An iterative example:
In the first iteration of a website check-out engine, payment with debit cards (a first increment) is implemented.
The second iteration might produce an increment that supports payment by credit card.
Finally, the third iteration might add an increment allowing payment via PayPal.
Incremental development Approach
In an incremental approach, one aims to build pieces of program/product that is complete in features and richness. In this case, each functionality is built to its fullest and additional functionalities are added in an incremental fashion.
When we work incrementally we are adding module/portion by module but expect that each module is fully finished.
First, let’s look at simple definitions of the two terms:
Incremental – adding new functionality in small chunks
Example of Incremental Development:
I write part one
I write part two
I write part three, etc, until the book is finished
Incremental Iteration Approach
Iterative Incremental Development Model is a process where creating requirements, designing, building and testing a system in small parts. This model divided into small parts which will help to make modules very easily. In this model, module passes through some phases like requirements, coding, designing, testing. Iterative Incremental Development model is well known as well as easy to use. Using this model, some part of the system which is built can show to the customer and get some suggestion from it.
This model is useful if we have complete requirements as well as resources to make it. Mostly use for the small project and if customers have requirements to give some output after every phase, so this is a suitable model for them.
An agile methodology mostly depends on building a software product using incremental iterations.
The beauty of the incremental iterative approach is that the main build of the product is always a working product and it can be marketed while the project team is busy creating additional software product features.
Comparison of Various SDLC Models (Heavyweight Methodology)
Properties of Model
Water Fall Model
Incremental Model
Spiral Model
Planning in early stage
Yes
Yes
Yes
Handle Large-Project
Not Appropriate
Not Appropriate
Appropriate
Detailed Documentation
Necessary
Yes but not much
Yes
Cost
Low
Low
Expensive
Requirement Specifications
Beginning
Beginning
Beginning
Flexibility to change
Difficult
Easy
Easy
User Involvement
Only at beginning
Intermediate
High
Risk Involvement
High
Low
Medium to high risk
Framework Type
Linear
Linear + Iterative
Linear + Iterative
Testing
After completion of coding phase
After every iteration
At the end of the engineering phase
Overlapping Phases
No
Yes (As parallel development is there)
No
Properties of Model
Water Fall Model
Incremental Model
Spiral Model
Re-usability
Least possible
To some extent
To some extent
Working software availability
At the end of the life-cycle
At the end of every iteration
At the end of every iteration
Team size
Large Team
Not Large Team
Large Team
Customer control over administrator
Very Low
Yes
Yes
Evolution of Agile Approach
Agile is the ability to create and respond to change. It is a way of dealing with, and ultimately succeeding in, an uncertain and turbulent environment.
Iterative and incremental development methods can be traced back as early as 1957, with evolutionary project management and adaptive software development emerging in the early 1970s. It is a software development approach based on iterative development.
During the 1990s, a number of lightweight software development methods evolved in reaction to the prevailing heavyweight methods (such as waterfall) that critics described as overly regulated, planned, and micro-managed.
In 2001, these seventeen software developers met at a resort in Snowbird, Utah to discuss these lightweight development methods. Together they published the Manifesto for Agile Software Development.
In 2009, a group working with Martin wrote an extension of software development principles, the Software Craftsmanship Manifesto, to guide agile software development according to professional conduct and mastery.
In 2011, the Agile Alliance created the Guide to Agile Practices (renamed the Agile Glossary in 2016), an evolving open-source compendium of the working definitions of agile practices, terms, and elements, along with interpretations and experience guidelines from the worldwide community of agile practitioners.
Agile Manifesto
The Agile Manifesto is a declaration of the values and principles expressed in agile methodology. Made up for four foundational values and 12 key principles, it aims to help uncover better ways of developing software by providing a clear and measurable structure that promotes iterative development, team collaboration, and change recognition.
The values and principles of the ‘Manifesto for Agile Software Development’ are:
Values
The agile software development emphasizes on four core values.
Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left more.
Agile Principles
The following 12 Principles are based on the Agile Manifesto.
Satisfy the Customer: Highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software.
The best ways to ensure you make customers happy while continuously delivering valuable software are to ship early, iterate frequently, and listen to your market continually.
Welcome Change: Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customer’s competitive advantage.
Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customer’s competitive advantage. It’s hard not to get a wave of despair when thinking about change requests but change is good if you can react to it fast enough. Change means you are getting closer to client needs and that’s a good thing.
Deliver Frequently: Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
Agile philosophy favors breaking a product’s development into smaller components and “shipping” those components frequently. Using an agile approach, therefore — and building in more frequent mini-releases of your product— can speed the product’s overall development. The sooner you deliver incremental software, the faster the feedback and faster you can identify a wrong turn or a miscommunication with the client.
Work Together: Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project.
Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project. It makes sense for the customer to become part of the team. After all, both the developers and the customers have the same goal; to deliver valuable software. Regular communication between business people and developers helps improve alignment across the organization by building trust and transparency.
Build Projects: Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
A key part of the agile philosophy is empowering individuals and teams through trust and autonomy. The agile team needs to be carefully built to include the right people and skill sets to get the job done, and responsibilities need to be clearly defined before the beginning of a project. Once the work has begun, however, there’s no place in agile for micromanagement or hand holding.
Face-To-Face Time: The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a development team is face-to-face conversation.
Documenting conversations, creating email narrative streams, even using collaboration software like Slack, are all well and good. But when you’re trying to move swiftly, you don’t have time to wait for a reply. You need immediate answers, and the only way to achieve that speed of response is by talking to your team member or team in person.
Measure of Progress: Working software is the primary measure of progress.
That means, is the software working correctly? You’re not measuring progress by checking off tasks and moving across your scheduled timeline, but by the success of the software (or whatever) is the subject of your project. The ultimate measure for success is a working product that customers love.
Sustainable Development: Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers and users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
Keeping up with a demanding, rapid release schedule can be difficult on a team. Especially if expectations are set too high. Agile principles encourage us to be mindful of this and set realistic, clear expectations. The idea is to keep morale high and improve work-life balance to prevent burnout and turnover among members of cross functional teams.
Continuous Attention: Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
Whether you’re working on code or something more concrete, you want to make sure that after each iteration it’s improving. You don’t want to have to come back and fix things later. Fix them now. Better still, make sure they’re getting better. Use scrum, an agile framework for completing complex projects, to help review and keep the project evolving.
Keep It Simple: Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount of work not being done—is essential.
If you’re looking to move quickly through a project, then you’re going to want to cut out unnecessary complexities. Keeping things as simple as possible is a great ethic to streamline your process. You can do this many ways, including the use of agile tools (Gantt Chart for big picture, Dashboards for Reporting on Progress, etc.) that cut out the busy work and give you more control over every aspect of the project.
Organized Teams: The best architectures, requirements and designs emerge from self- organizing teams.
Agile principles suggest the use of self-organizing teams which work with a more “flat” management style where decisions are made as a group rather than by a singular manager or management team. When you have a strong team, you want to give that team the autonomy to act independently. This means they can adapt to change quicker. In fact, they can do everything with greater agility because you’ve given them the trust to act without second guessing them. If you’ve done your job in collecting the right people, then they’ll do their job addressing issues and resolving them before they become problems.
Reflect for Effectiveness: At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
We’ve all been on projects that end with an AAR, After Action Review. These reviews help the next project but not the one you just finished. Agile defines several ceremonies and important among those is the Retrospective. Generally held at the end of each Sprint/Iteration it is a way for teams to catch and improve behaviors before they have a huge, detrimental impact on the project.
Stages of the Agile Life Cycle
The main steps for Agile project management are as follows:
In the Agile methodology, each project is broken up into several ‘Iterations’.
All Iterations should be of the same time duration (between 2 to 8 weeks).
At the end of each iteration, a working product should be delivered.
In simple terms, in the Agile approach the project will be broken up into 10 releases (assuming each iteration is set to last 4 weeks).
Rather than spending 1.5 months on requirements gathering, in Agile software development, the team will decide the basic core features that are required in the product and decide which of these features can be developed in the first iteration.
Any remaining features that cannot be delivered in the first iteration will be taken up in the next iteration or subsequent iterations, based on priority.
At the end of the first iterations, the team will deliver a working software with the features that were finalized for that iteration.
Advantages of the Agile Model
Customer satisfaction by rapid, continuous delivery of useful software.
People and interactions are emphasized rather than process and tools. Customers, developers and testers constantly interact with each other.
Working software is delivered frequently (weeks rather than months).
Face-to-face conversation is the best form of communication.
Drawbacks of the Agile Model
In case of some software deliverables, especially the large ones, it is difficult to assess the effort required at the beginning of the software development life cycle.
There is lack of emphasis on necessary documentation.
The project can easily get taken off track if the customer representative is not clear what final outcome that they want.
Popular Agile Methodologies/Frameworks
There are many popular agile frameworks used by various organizations. Often these organizations modify parts of the frameworks as they see fit and as they iterate on their own agile processes. Below you’ll find our overviews of several commonly used and well-document frameworks for agile software development.
Methodologies That Are Used to Implement Agile:
Agile is a framework and there are a number of specific methods within the Agile movement. You can think of these as different flavors of Agile:
Scrum [1995]
eXtreme Programming (XP) [1996]
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DDSM) [1994]
Feature Driven Development (FDD) [1997]
Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
The Crystal Method [1996]
Lean Software Development (LSD)
Disciplined Agile (DA)
Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe)
Other Practices in Agile:
There are many other practices and frameworks that are related to Agile. They include:
Rapid Application Development (RAD) [1991]
Rational Unified Process (RUP) [1994]
Scrum Model
The goal of Scrum is to dramatically improve productivity in teams and to deliver new software every 2-4 weeks. Agile Scrum methodology involves forming teams with diversity, strong communicative teamwork, frequent feedbacks from clients, a lot of participates of users etc.
Some terminologies related to Scrum are discussed in the following sections.
Scrum Events: Scrum activities are driven through scrum events.
Sprint: The Sprint is a timebox of one month or less during which the team produces a potentially shippable product Increment.
Sprint Planning: Sprint planning meeting is first attended by the customers, users, management, Product owner and Scrum Team where a set of goals and functionality are decided on. Next the Scrum Master and the Scrum Team focus on how the product is implemented during the Sprint.
Daily Scrum: It is a daily meeting for approximately 15 minutes, which are organized to keep track of the progress of the Scrum Team and address any obstacles faced by the team.
Sprint Review: At the end of the Sprint, the entire team (including product owner) reviews the results of the sprint with stakeholders of the product to get feedback.
Sprint Retrospective: At the end of the Sprint following the sprint review the team (including product owner) should reflect upon how things went during the previous sprint and identify adjustments they could make going forward. The result of this retrospective is at least one action item included on the following Sprint’s Sprint Backlog.
Product Backlog: A product backlog is a list of the new features, changes to existing features, bug fixes, infrastructure changes or other activities that a team may deliver in order to achieve a specific outcome. The Product Owner is responsible for maintaining the Product Backlog.
Sprint Backlog: Sprint backlog is a subset of product backlog. It contains the requirements that are used to develop the current sprint.
Increment: The increment is the collection of the Product Backlog Items that meet the team’s Definition of Done by the end of the Sprint. The Product Owner may decide to release the increment or build upon it in future Sprints.
Scrum Master: Master is responsible for setting up the team, sprint meeting and removes obstacles to progress
Product owner: The Product Owner creates product backlog, prioritizes the backlog and is responsible for the delivery of the functionality at each iteration
Scrum Team: Team manages its own work and organizes the work to complete the sprint or cycle
Scrum Lifecycle
The Scrum Lifecycle starts with a prioritized backlog, but does not provide any guidance as to how that backlog is developed or prioritized.
The Scrum Lifecycle consists of a series of Sprints, where the end result is a potentially shippable product increment. Below is a description of the key steps in the Scrum Lifecycle:
Establish the Product Backlog.
The product owner and development team conduct Sprint Planning. Determine the scope of the Sprint in the first part of Sprint Planning and the plan for delivering that scope in the second half of Sprint Planning.
As the Sprint progresses, development team perform the work necessary to deliver the selected product backlog items.
On a daily basis, the development team coordinate their work in a Daily Scrum.
At the end of the Sprint the development team delivers the Product Backlog Items selected during Sprint Planning. The development team holds a Sprint Review to show the customer the increment and get feedback. The development team and product owner also reflect on how the Sprint has proceeded so far and adapting their processes accordingly during a retrospective.
The Team repeats steps 2–5 until the desired outcome of the product have been met.
Advantages of Scrum
Scrum methodology enables projects where the business requirements documentation is hard to quantify to be successfully developed.
It is a lightly controlled method which insists on frequent updating of the progress in work through regular meetings. Thus there is clear visibility of the project development.
Like any other agile methodology, this is also iterative in nature. It requires continuous feedback from the user.
Due to short sprints and constant feedback, it becomes easier to cope with the changes.
Daily meetings make it possible to measure individual productivity. This leads to the improvement in the productivity of each of the team members.
Issues are identified well in advance through the daily meetings and hence can be resolved in speedily.
It is easier to deliver a quality product in a scheduled time.
The overhead cost in terms of process and management is minimal thus leading to a quicker, cheaper result.
Disadvantages of Scrum
If the team members are not committed, the project will either never complete or fail.
It is good for small, fast moving projects as it works well only with small team.
This methodology needs experienced team members only. If the team consists of people who are novices, the project cannot be completed in time.
If any of the team members leave during a development it can have a huge inverse effect on the project development
Project quality manager is hard to implement and quantify unless the test team are able to conduct regression testing after each sprint.
eXtreme Programming (XP)
XP team members spend few minutes on programming, few minutes on project management, few minutes on design, few minutes on feedback, and few minutes on team building many times each day.
A summary of XP terms and practices is shown below:
Planning – In the planning stage user stories are written. User stories are used to create time estimates for release planning meeting. The programmer estimates the effort needed for implementation of customer stories and the customer decides the scope and timing of releases based on estimates.
Small/short releases – An application is developed in a series of small, frequently updated versions. New versions are released anywhere from daily to monthly.
Metaphor – Metaphor is a simple shared story of how the system works. The system is defined by a set of metaphors between the customer and the programmers.
Simple Design – The emphasis is on designing the simplest possible solution that is implemented and unnecessary complexity and extra code are removed immediately.
Refactoring – It involves restructuring the system by removing duplication, improving communication, simplifying and adding flexibility but without changing the functionality of the program
Pair programming – All production code are written by two programmers on one computer.
Collective ownership – No single person owns or is responsible for individual code segments rather anyone can change any part of the code at any time.
Continuous Integration – A new piece of code is integrated with the current system as soon as it is ready. When integrating, the system is built again and all tests must pass for the changes to be accepted.
40-hour week – No one can work two overtime weeks in a row. A maximum of 40-hour working week otherwise it is treated as a problem.
On-site customer – Customer must be available at all times with the development team.
Coding Standards – Coding rules exist and are followed by the programmers so as to bring consistence and improve communication among the development team.
The lifecycle of XP
The lifecycle of an XP is divided into six phases: Exploration, Planning, Iterations to release, Production, Maintenance and Death.
In the Exploration phase, the customer writes out the story cards they wish to be included in their program.
This leads to Planning phase where a priority order is set to each user story and a schedule of the first release is developed.
Next in the Iterations to Release phase, the development team first iteration is to create a system with the architecture of the whole system then continuously integrating and testing their code.
Extra testing and checking of the performance of the system before the system can be released to the customer is done in the Production phase.
Postponed (rest of) ideas and suggestions found at this phase are documented for later implementation in the updated releases made at the Maintenance phase. Also, customer feedback is considered.
Finally the Death Phase is near when the customer have no more stories to be implemented and all the necessary documentation of the system is written as no more changes to the architecture, design or code is made.
Advantages of XP
The greatest advantage of eXtreme Programming is that this methodology allows software development companies to save costs and time required for project realization.
One of the major advantages of eXtreme Programming is that it reduces the risks related to programming or related to project failure.
Constant feedback; demonstrate the software early and often, listen carefully and make any changes needed..
eXtreme Programming helps increase employee satisfaction and retention. eXtreme Programming is a value-driven approach that sets fixed work time, with little scope for overtime.
XP is not the best option if programmers are separated geographically.
Not recommended for team with more than ten members
Required experienced developers
Lack of documentation
Comparison of XP and Scrum
Features
eXtremeProgramming
Scrum
Development Approach
Iterative and incremental
Iterative and incremental
Project Size
Small
All
Team Size
2 to 10
Multiple teams of less than10 members
Iteration/Sprint Duration
1 to 3 weeks
4 weeks
Project Management
No
Yes; Practices for projectmanagement are available
Response to Change
Quick
Quick
Documentation
Less
Less
Design Flexibility
Start from Simple design that canbe changed using refactoring
Focus on simple design
Changes During Iteration
Allowed
Not allowed
Feedback
Span from minutes to months
Span over a month
Testing
Unit testing, integration testing,acceptance testing
Not defined
Coding Standards
Properly defined
Not defined
OtherPracticesinAgile:
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Rapid Application Development is heavily focused primarily on rapid prototyping of software products, frequently iterating based on feedback, and continuously releasing updated versions of those products to the market.
The RAD concept was officially introduced to the public in 1991 with the book Rapid Application Development by James Martin. Rapid application development has become one of the most popular and powerful development methods, which falls under the parental category of agile development techniques.
The James Martin approach to RAD divides the process into four distinct phases:
Requirements planning phase – Users, managers, and IT staff members discuss and agree on business needs, project scope, constraints, and system requirements. It ends when the team agrees on the key issues and obtains management authorization to continue.
User design phase – The RAD groups or subgroups typically use a combination of Joint Application Development (JAD) techniques and CASE tools to translate user needs into working models. User Design is a continuous interactive process that allows users to understand, modify, and eventually approve a working model of the system that meets their needs.
Construction phase – focuses on program and application development task similar to the SDLC. In RAD, however, users continue to participate and can still suggest changes or improvements as actual screens or reports are developed. Its tasks are programming and application development, coding, unit-integration and system testing.
Cutover phase – resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training. Compared with traditional methods, the entire process is compressed. As a result, the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much sooner.
Advantages of RAD Model
The time required to develop the software is drastically reduced due to a reduced requirement analysis business requirements documentation and software requirement specification) and planning stage.
All the software prototypes produced can be kept in a repository for future use. If a component is being picked for the repository, it is already tested and hence need not be tested again. This helps in saving time required for testing.
It is a big cost saver in terms of project budget as well as project time and cost due to reusability of the prototypes.
It is much easier for a project manager to be accurate in estimating project costs which of course means that project cost controls are easier to implement and manage as well.
Customer giving feedback in the whole process. Hence the end user satisfaction level is higher when the end result is produced.
It promotes better documentation through written test cases.
Drawbacks of RAD Model
A technically strong team is essential to adequately identify and deliver business requirements.
Documentation is completed in the final phase, so problems and progress are harder to track, which significantly impacts scalability.
The RAD model requires a frequent cycle of prototypes, and consequently, all stakeholders must be willing and able to commit to regular meetings to communicate and provide feedback frequently.
It is difficult for large-scale projects.
When to use the RAD Model
RAD is particularly useful for small businesses delivering innovative products in a competitive market place.
The on-the-fly approach accommodates unexpected changing of requirements.
RAD models can be very successful when a quick delivery of a product is needed for a customer. It is also the best model to choose when there are going to be changes made to the prototype throughout the process before the final product is completed.
RAD should only be used when a system can be modulated to be delivered incrementally. If you need to build an internal business tool or a customer facing portal, RAD can assist you to deliver better experience to your end users.
Rational Unified Process (RUP) Model
All efforts, including modeling, is organized into workflows in the Rational Unified Process (RUP) and is performed in an iterative and incremental manner. The lifecycle of the RUP is presented in Figure. Some of the key features of the RUP are as follows :
It uses a component based architecture which creates a system that is easily extensible, promotes software reuse and intuitively understandable. The component commonly being used to coordinate object oriented programming projects.
Uses visually modeling software such as UML – which represent its code as a diagrammatic notation to allow less technically competent individuals who may have a better understanding of the problem to have a greater input.
Manage requirements using use-cases and scenarios have been found to be very effective at both capturing functional requirements and help in keeping sight of the anticipated behaviors of the system.
Design is iterative and incremental – this helps reduce project risk profile, allows greater customer feedback and help developers stay focused.
Verifying software quality is very important in a software project. UP assists in planning quality control and assessment built into the entire process involving all member of the team.
In the RUP, all progress is made as continual ADIV cycles
These key features above are guidelines to be adhered throughout a projects’ lifecycle. To determine the length of the project, RUP divides the project into four phases which are shown above in Figure of RUP and discussed below:
Inception – By the end of this process a business case should have been made; feasibility of the project assessed; and the scope of the design should be set.
Elaboration – In this phase a basic architecture should have been produced and a plan of construction agreed. Furthermore, a risk analysis takes place and those risks considered to be major should have been addressed.
Construction – This process produces a beta-release system. A working system should be available and sufficient enough for preliminary testing under realistic conditions.
Transition – The system is introduced to the stakeholders and intended users. It is crossed when the project team and the stakeholders agree that the objectives agreed in the inception phase have been met and the user is satisfied.
The black heaps on the graph show the amount of work to be done for a workflow over a period. For example, let us consider the black heap for the business modeling workflow. It shows a large amount of work at the beginning of the project. This means the business modeling work is done early in the project. A major part of business modeling is done in the inception phase. It also shows that work is spread over Iterations 1 and 2 for the elaboration phase.
Advantages of RUP
When a phase changes, through the use of a workflow, some work can be carried out in that other phase. For example, the requirements workflow can be carried out even during the construction phase of the project.
Thus, overlapping of work is possible over the phases of the project. This kind of functionality is not available in the traditional Waterfall model.
It is proactively able to resolve the project risks associated with the client’s evolving requirements requiring careful change request management
Drawbacks of RUP
RUP brings an overhead in terms of maintaining the project phases as well as workflows. This kind of functionality is not needed on projects where the requirements are not expected to change. For these projects, usage of RUP is overkill.
Heavily relies on proficient and expert team members, since assignment of activities to individual workers should produce tangible, pre-planned results in the form of artifacts.
Integration throughout the process of software development, in theory sounds a good thing. But on particularly big projects with multiple development streams it will only add to the confusion and cause more issues during the stages of testing
When to Use RUP
This model is best suited for projects where the requirements from the end users are ambiguous at the beginning because the end users themselves may not be clear as to what they expect in the software product. RUP allows the refinement of the requirements over several iterations.
RUP is definitely suited for software projects in which changes occur in the design or requirements. RUP takes care of these changes by incorporating them during iterations.
How to Choose the Best SDLC Model: Traditional SDLC vs. Agile
With so many different approaches to structuring software processes within your organization, you’re probably wondering how to go about choosing one. There are many factors that may influence which framework you choose to work with. Such as:
Company size
Team structure and their skill
Available resources
Needs of stakeholders
Structure/size of your product portfolio
Each Methodology has its own unique set of strengths and weaknesses. And the framework that works for someone else’s team might not be the right one for you. Ultimately, you’ll have to experiment a bit and figure out what works best for you.
It is no doubt that the adoption of the right technology in any organization has substantial benefits. However, it is not every software or application you find on the marketplace will solve your needs. It is advisable to align your software adoption to the specific needs and conditions at your organization. This is one of the benefits of the Agile software development lifecycle, as this method aims at enhancing productivity and satisfying customers’ needs. It is the best consideration for startups, as it has a room for this flexibility. In addition, startups should consider Agile SDLC because it provides an avenue for them to use their limited resources in a smart way to gain the competitive advantage they need. However, for Agile SDLC to work effectively, you need the input of the right dedicated development team.
SDLC – Software Prototype Model
Software prototyping is becoming very popular as a software development model, as it enables to understand customer requirements at an early stage of development. It helps get valuable feedback from the customer and helps software designers and developers understand about what exactly is expected from the product under development. What is Software Prototyping? Prototype is a working model of software with some limited functionality. The prototype does not always hold the exact logic used in the actual software application and is an extra effort to be considered under effort estimation. Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals and try them out before implementation. It also helps understand the requirements which are user specific and may not have been considered by the developer during product design.
Following is a stepwise approach explained to design a software prototype.
Basic Requirement Identification: This step involves understanding the very basics product requirements especially in terms of user interface. The more intricate details of the internal design and external aspects like performance and security can be ignored at this stage. Developing the initial Prototype: The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where the very basic requirements are showcased and user interfaces are provided. These features may not exactly work in the same manner internally in the actual software developed. While, the workarounds are used to give the same look and feel to the customer in the prototype developed. Review of the Prototype: The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and the other important stakeholders in the project. The feedback is collected in an organized manner and used for further enhancements in the product under development. Revise and Enhance the Prototype: The feedback and the review comments are discussed during this stage and some negotiations happen with the customer based on factors like – time and budget constraints and technical feasibility of the actual implementation.
Software Prototyping – Types
Throwaway/Rapid Prototyping: Throwaway prototyping is also called as rapid or close ended prototyping. This type of prototyping uses very little efforts with minimum requirement analysis to build a prototype. Evolutionary Prototyping: Evolutionary prototyping also called as breadboard prototyping is based on building actual functional prototypes with minimal functionality in the beginning. The prototype developed forms the heart of the future prototypes on top of which the entire system is built. Incremental Prototyping: Incremental prototyping refers to building multiple functional prototypes of the various sub-systems and then integrating all the available prototypes to form a complete system. Extreme Prototyping: Extreme prototyping is used in the web development domain. It consists of three sequential phases. First, a basic prototype with all the existing pages is presented in the HTML format. Software Prototyping – Application
➔ Software Prototyping is most useful in development of systems having high level of user interactions such as online systems. ➔ Systems which need users to fill out forms or go through various screens before data is processed can use prototyping very effectively to give the exact look and feel even before the actual software is developed. ➔ Software that involves too much of data processing and most of the functionality is internal with very little user interface does not usually benefit from prototyping. ➔ Prototype development could be an extra overhead in such projects and may need lot of extra efforts. The advantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows − ● Increased user involvement in the product even before its implementation. ● Since a working model of the system is displayed, the users get a better understanding of the system being developed. ● Reduces time and cost as the defects can be detected much earlier. ● Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions. ● Missing functionality can be identified easily. ● Confusing or difficult functions can be identified. The Disadvantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows − ● Risk of insufficient requirement analysis owing to too much dependency on the prototype. ● Users may get confused in the prototypes and actual systems. ● Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the system may expand beyond original plans. ● Developers may try to reuse the existing prototypes to build the actual system, even when it is not technically feasible. ● The effort invested in building prototypes may be too much if it is not monitored properly
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks.
#. According to IEEE-Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers:
Software is a collection of computer programs, procedures, rules, associated documentation and data.
Software is two types: (1) System Software (2) Application Software
#. System software is Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Chrome OS etc.
#. Application software is Ms Word, Photoshop, Chrome, Yahoo, etc.
Software can be categorized into two main types:
@. System Software:
System software is a type of software responsible for managing and controlling computer hardware and providing a platform for other software applications to run.
System software is three types.
#. Operating Systems:
Operating systems is a type of software that manages computer hardware and provides a user-friendly interface for running applications.
Such as: Windows, Mac OS, Linux, and Android.
#. Device Driver:
Device driver is a type of software that allows the operating system to communicate with specific hardware devices.
Such as: Printers, Graphics cards, and Network adapters.
#. Utilities Software:
Utilities software is a type ofsoftware that performs various system tasks.
Such as: Disk management, File compression, and Security functions.
@. Application Software:
Application softwareis a type of software includes programs that perform specific tasks or functions for end-users.
It can range from simple applications like text editors to complex programs.
Application software is six types.
#. Word Processor:
Word processor is a type of software used for creating, editing, and formatting documents.
Such as: MS Word, Google Docs, and Different Page.
#. Web Browser:
Web browser is a type of software that allows users to access and navigate the internet.
Such as: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari.
#. Multimedia Software:
Multimedia Software is a type of applications for viewing and editing images, playing audio and video files, and creating multimedia content.
Such as: Adobe Premiere Pro, OBS Studio, and Audacity.
#. Productivity Software:
Productivity Softwareis a type of Software designed to help users be more productive.
Such as: Spreadsheet applications (MS Excel), Presentation software (MS PowerPoint), and Task management tools.
#. Graphics and Design Software:
Graphics and Design software is a type ofapplications for creating graphics, illustrations, and animations.
Such as: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, and Canva.
#. Entertainment Software:
Entertainment software is a type of software includes video games, media players, streaming services, virtual reality apps, and more designed for leisure and enjoyment.
Such as: Video games, Media players, and E-book Reader.
@. Software Engineering:
Software Engineering is the application of a system, disciplined, and cost-effective technique which is an engineering approach for the development, operation, and maintenance.
@. Computer Science:
Computer science deals with the science behind the interaction between hardware and software system and computation application.
@. CASE:
CASE: Computer Aided Software Engineering.
CASE is a software tool used to implement or design software and application.
It is also a document (domain) or software tool.
@. Software Building:
Set of program
Configuration file
#. Set of code #. System documentation #. User documentation
(Software Structure) (How to use)
@. SDLC:
The full meaning of SDLC is Software Development Life Cycle.
SDLC is a process used by the software industry to design, develop and test high quality software.
SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software organization.
The typical stages in the Software Development Life Cycle include:
